Overview of the Cuban Missile Crisis

Overview of the Cuban Missile Crisis The Cuban Missile Crisis was a period of extreme tension and conflict between the USA and Cuba and the USSR in October 1962; it was characterized by decisions made by both John F Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev. It was a 13 day event which started as a result of the USSR placing nuclear weapons in Cuba in an attempt to stop future harassment of Cuba following the failed Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961. The Cuban Missile Crisis was by far the closest that the USA and USSR came to using nuclear weapons in warfare, and it was only by tactile decision making in a crisis that disaster was averted. A crisis is characterised by threats to major values, time urgency, ambiguity or uncertainty and surprise or uniqueness, by these characteristics, the Cuban Missile Crisis was one of the biggest crisis of the 20th century. The crisis started when following a meeting between Fidel Castro and Nikita Khrushchev, Khrushchev agreed to hold nuclear missiles in Cuba. This was in response to several threats on Cuba from the USA. The Bay of Pigs invasion, though a failure displayed the USAs negative intentions to the Cuban regime and therefore Castro argued that a nuclear deterrent was the only option for the long term safety of Cuba. This was also a part of the USSRs response to the presence of American Jupiter missiles in both Turkey and Italy, which were firmly in range of Moscow. Following Khrushchev granting Cuba missiles, construction of the missile launch facilities started in the summer of 1962.The deployment of the missiles only came to light following photos taken by a US Air Force U-2 Spy plane. The plane had taken photos which clearly showed both medium and intermediate range nuclear missile facilities. The photos were shown to President Kennedy on October 16th and he quickly organised a meeting of the National Security Council to discuss what options of response the US had (JFK library,1962). This is an example of decision making, where the decision made will have a large and irreversible impact. There were numerous decisions and options discussed from using diplomatic channels to pressure the Cubans to remove the weapons, launch a full scale invasion of Cuba, Air strikes or a blockage (Allison Zeilkow, 1999). While the US had the military capabilities to invade and overthrow Cuba, they feared the Soviet response. It is also important to consider the fact that it was an election year in the US, and JFK had already come under fire by Republicans for a seemingly weak line against Cuba and they did not want to appear weak or afraid of the combined threat of Cuba and the Soviets. This had led to President Kennedy stating before gaining the knowledge of weapons in Cuba that â€Å"if Cuba should possess a capacity to carry out offensive actions against the United States the Unite d States would act’ (Peters Wooley, 1962). This had in effect already forced his arm; he did not want to appear to back down from his promises. In the end the US decided to conduct a naval blockade against Cuba, one of the main reasons for this decision was it made the US appear strong, whilst not forcing the Soviets hand or seemingly overly aggressive. Another key aspect in this is the legal ramifications of a blockade. Under international law, a blockade of another nation is considered to be an act of war, however lawyers at the Justice and State Department found a loophole that avoided the US from issuing a potentially contentious declaration of war. Using the Rio treaty a resolution from the Organization of American states allowed the US from having to declare war upon Cuba, which the Soviets would have objected to (Allison and Zelikow, 1999). The ‘blockade’ was instead termed as a quarantine of offensive weapons. (May, 2012). President Kennedy formally announced the blockade on 22 October in which he stated ‘It shall be the policy of this nation to regard any nuclear missile launched from Cuba against any nation in the Western Hemisphere as an attack by the Soviet Union on the United States, requiring a full retaliatory response upon the Soviet Union’ (United Press,2010). The international response was overwhelming with the world realising that they had never been closer to the use of nuclear weapons, and if they were deployedby both the US and the Soviets, there would be worldwide destruction never seen before on such a scale. During this period it is reported not only was there a Cuban invasion force stationed and ready in Florida but also 145 intercontinental ballistic missiles ready to take off, and the fleet of b-52 bombers were on continuous airborne alert, the US it is clear was preparing for a full scale war on a scale not seen since the end of WW2 (Kamps, 2007). On October 24 Soviet ships that were headed for Cuba caused panic when they neared the line of US ships which were actively enforcing the Cuban blockade. However the Soviet ships stopped just short of the blockade, requiring no action from the US. If they had attempted to breach the blockade, it could have easily led to a military confrontation. A further escalation in the crisis was on October 27, when an American spy plane was shot down over Cuba. Despite this overwhelming pressure which seemed to give no sign of slowing down or de-escalating a way was found out of the crisis which avoided a military conflict between the US and Soviets. Throughout the crisis Kennedy and Khrushchev had been communicating and when the crisis was near breaking point, the US told the Brazilian government to pass on a message to Cuba that it would be unlikely that the US would invade Cuba if they removed the missiles (National Security Archive, 2011). What followed was a personal letter from Khrushchev written on 26th October which offered a way out of the stalemate, if the US declared they will not invade Cuba then the Soviets would leave and remove the missiles. However the next day Khrushchev sent another letter which stated they would remove the missile bases in Cuba only if the US removed missiles from both Turkey and Italy’s As the two offers differed President Kennedy said he would accept the first one, this would also be a lot more f avourable his popularity in the US. What followed were intense negotiations between both US and Soviet dignitaries in Washington. Eventually a deal was reached and the Soviets agreed to remove the missiles from Cuba and to take them back to Russia whilst Kennedy secretly agreed to dismantle weapons bases in both Italy and Turkey. The crisis was over. What the Cuban Missile Crisis is, is an example is of leadership and decision making in a crisis. It was a period of extreme tension, the wrong decision could lead to nuclear war, yet a clear headed and rational decision still had to be made. The decisions that President Kennedy made were made only after looking at the effects both on the world stage and also back in the US. It was a senate election year and President Kennedy couldn’t let any decision he made weakenhis position in the mind of the electorate. Yet he also had to way up the potential devastating impact if the crisis escalated because he wanted to appear strong against the Cuban and Soviet threat. Kennedy had already come under pressure from Republicans, for having a supposedly weak stance on Cuba, so reaching any form of compromise was unthinkable to the Cuban hawks in the Republicans. What this clearly shows is the sheer complexity of the arena that Kennedy had to make his decision in. He had to de-escalate the conflict, which required compromise on his part, whilst appearing strong and not to give in to the Soviet threat. That he managed to do that, and was considered by many at the time to have ‘won’ the crisis is remarkable. We can analyse several of the decisions made by Kennedy, how to respond to the threat and how to deal with the de-escalation of the crisis. When deciding how to respond to the crisis Kennedy and his advisors had to weigh up several key and important factors. As previously mentioned there were several ideas and options to choose from when responding to the initial discovery of missiles in this early stage in the crisis of mounting tension. If the US did nothing, as it was high unlikely that Cuba would use them unprovoked considering the Soviets knew they did not have the same firepower or amount of nuclear warheads as the US, then the crisis would potentially fade away without requiring a military response. However several Republicans had already been criticising Kennedy for being too lenient to Cuba, if it came public that Kennedy did nothing when a nuclear weapon was found 90 miles of the coast of Florida he would appear weak and his leadership credibility would be in tatters. The other extreme would be an escalation of the crisis, either an air-strike or full scale military invasion. While this would certainly win him support back home, it is highly unlikely that the Soviets would not also respond with force, thus starting war between the US and the Soviets. Also President Kennedys allies in the UK, France and in the wider international community would feel that the US went into war too quickly when there was a diplomatic route out of the crisis, thus it would cost him support from his allies. Therefore we can see that the blockade was a good strategic decision for Kennedy to take. It made the US appear strong, meeting the crisis head on, without looking brash and escalating the conflict. Further as previously mentioned there was a legal precedent for it. Thus it is clear this was a good decision to take under the circumstances and time pressure. Kennedy had analysed the impact his decision would have in the US, to the Soviets and Cuba as well as the wide r international community. The blockade made the US look strong but not overly aggressive and more importantly it placed the impetus on Khrushchev to make the next decision to escalate or de-escalate the crisis. Another example of good decision making in the Cuban missile crisis was Kennedy’s decision to accept the removal of missiles in Cuba public, whilst keeping the US withdrawal of missiles in Turkey and Italy secret. He accurately judged how far Khrushchev would stretch diplomatically and calculated that he could create an end to the crisis whilst appearing to have stood firm in the face of Soviet aggression and have forced Khrushchev back down from the US. This was a decision he took after weighing up the options and potential benefits and drawbacks. Kennedy therefore was able to make a clear decision despite threats to major values, large scale uncertainty and a lack of time to concretely analyse every potential outcome of a decision. What inevitably stopped this crisis from escalating into war while other similar crises have ended in warfare is the ability and will of both the Soviets and the US to compromise. In conclusion, we can see that due to decision making a crisis that could have easily ended up in nuclear warfare, ended up with a diplomatic solution. The only reason war was avoided was the rational decision making abilities of a few key players. President Kennedy had to de-escalate a crisis whilst still maintaning control of the situation. That he was able to do this and appear successful both on the world stage and back home is commendable and down to his ability to make clear and calculated desicions under pressure. The US enjoyed the press coverage of a victorious nation and in the senate election that followed the Democrats won three seats, so we can see this as a vote of confidence in the Democrats and Kennedy following the missile crisis. What becomes clear from studying the Cuban Missile Crisis is how important pursuing the correct strategy when attempting to de-escalate a crisis and the need for crisis managers to take rational decisions in face of extreme pressure. Here t he pressure or consequences could not have been greater, yet disaster was avoided by the actions and decision making abilities of crisis managers. References Allison, Graham; Zelikow, Philip. (1999). Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis. New York: Addison Wesley Longman. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. (1962). Off the Record Meeting on Cuba: The White House. Washington D.C. Kamps, Charles. (2007). The Cuban Missile Crisis. Air Space Power, (3), 88. May, Ernest. (2012, February 7). John F Kennedy and the Cuban Missile Crisis. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/coldwar/kennedy_cuban_missile_01.shtml#three National Security Archive. (2011). October 26, 1962 to November 15, 1962. The Cuban Missile Crisis.Author. Peters, Gerhard; Woolley, John.(1962). John F Kennedy. 378-The Presidents News Conference. Santa Barbara, CA: The American Presidency Project. University of Californa. United Press International. (2010, April 22). Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 Year In Review. Retrieved from http://www.upi.com/Archives/Audio/Events-of-1962/Cuban-Missile-Crisis

American Corporations Have Always Responded to Family Issues

Since the birth of the United States of America, and indeed going back even further to the days of Colonial America, organized businesses have existed. These businesses have always required any number of workers to make products, provide services, and the like. Eventually, with the establishment of the American legal system, these businesses became American corporations and flourished, needing even more workers. Of course, these workers typically have families that they are working to support, and from time to time, issues arise within those families that require extra assistance.With this in mind, the issue of whether American corporations have always responded to family issues arises. In this research, the assertion will be made that American corporations have in fact always responded to family issues. This assertion will be supported with historical evidence. Statement/Support of Position The introduction stated that the position of this paper is that American corporations have al ways responded to family issues, and that position will be supported with historic evidence, with one important distinction at the outset.It is impossible to say that all American corporations have always been responsive; however, it is possible to bring forth some prominent examples of huge corporations, past and present that are quite responsive in fact. First, we travel in time back to the early 1800s and the business empire of a Scottish immigrant named Andrew Carnegie. A true rags-to-riches story, Carnegie came to America as a young man and eventually worked his way into becoming one of the wealthiest men in America.However, his personal belief was that a man who died wealthy without helping others was not a man at all. Because of this, he formed charitable foundations to help the families of his workers, as well as others, which today is manifested in the Carnegie-Mellon Foundation, which continues to help families to this very day (Andrew Carnegie: People and Events). Also co mpelling evidence of American corporations helping family issues include the millions of dollars that chocolate magnate Milton Hershey used to establish literally a town in Pennsylvania that would eventually bear his name.His intention in establishing the town was to have schools, hospitals and housing that would foster the healthy development of the American family (Milton Hershey: The Company and the Man). Fast forwarding to the modern day, Ford Motor Company has devoted tens of millions of dollars to support military families, who have unlimited issues due to separations that are necessary when one parent is serving overseas and the like (Ford’s Warriors in Pink and Army Wives Join Forces).Also, even in the midst of one of the worst economic situations in recent US history, the American financial industry of late has united to raise funds for the battle of cancer, a horrible disease that literally destroys families (Financial Industry's Leading Charity Aims to Raise $1 Mil lion at Annual Expect Miracles). Conclusion From just a few prominent examples, past and present, the point has been firmly established that American corporations have always responded to family issues.Once again, it should be stated that not all corporations respond like Ford, Hershey ,etc. , but perhaps they will in the future if motivated by the excellent examples set by the corporations that have responded to such issues. In closing, that is probably the most significant point to take away from this research. References Andrew Carnegie:People and Events. Retrieved October 13, 2008 from the World Wide Web: http://www. pbs. org/wgbh/amex/carnegie/peopleevents/pande01. html Financial Industry's Leading Charity Aims to Raise $1 Million at Annual Expect Miracles.Retrieved October 13, 2008 from the World Wide Web: http://www. reuters. com/article/pressRelease/idUS114628+09-Jun-2008+BW20080609 Ford’s Warriors in Pink and Army Wives Join Forces. Retrieved October 13, 2008 from th e World Wide Web: http://www. fordvehicles. com/warriorsinpink/armywives/? searchid=426441&28330281&205684999References Milton Hershey: The Company and the Man. Retrieved October 13, 2008 from the World Wide Web: http://www. hersheypa. com/town_of_hershey/history/

The War On Drugs - 927 Words

In 1971 President Richard Nixon declared a War on Drugs stating that drug abuse was â€Å"public enemy number one†. Four decades later America is still waging this war that many say can never truly be won. The goal of this campaign has always been the prohibition of drugs, military aid, and military intervention with the stated aim being to define and reduce the illegal drug trade however the tactics used thus far have done little to solve the problem of drugs in the United State. The use of military to combat this issue has resulted in billions of tax dollars with little results. Since 1970 the drug addiction rate has stayed consistent while the U.S. drug controlled spending has dramatically increased. Illegal drug trafficking thrives and violence escalates as this war against drugs wages on. The call to end the war on drugs has been made but can we really end something that should be treated like any other social issue? America’s prison population has seen a huge increase over the past forty years largely due to the failed drug war policies. A report released by the National Research Council found that with less than five percent of the world’s population but nearly 25 percent of the world’s prisoners, the U.S. continues to rank first among nations in both prison and jail population and per capita rates. In order to reduce incarceration it would be necessary to do more than just eliminating mandatory minimums sentences and harsh criminal penalties for nonviolent drug crimes.Show MoreRelatedThe Drug War On Drugs1378 Words   |  6 Pagesnon-violent drug charges. These people’s lives are now forever changed because of a mistake they made. This mistake is continually made every single day and Americans are being punished in extreme ways for a non violent crime. 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Drug abuse continues to be a daily topic with drug abusers flooding not only the American society but also many countries’ hospitals, prisons and courts. The drug trade has continued to cause violent crimesRead MoreThe Drug War On Drugs Essay2030 Words   |  9 Pagesthe â€Å"War on Drugs† sought to control the sale and use of psychoactive drugs as well as promote access to treatment for those who abuse and misuse these substances (Bagley, 1988; Elkins, 1990). Policies implemented prohibited the possession and distribution of narcotics (e.g. marijuana, cocaine, heroin); the punitive policies, which often resulted in hefty fines and prison sentences for violators, ultimately prompted the emer gence of a black market, more potent and lethal drugs, synthetic drugs as well

The Design Argument For The Existence Of God - 1286 Words

ONE The design argument for the existence of God follows the model: 1) In nature, things appear to work together for a clear purpose. 2) The best explanation for these relationships is that God designed these things. 3) Therefore, God exists, as he was the one who designed nature. This argument contends that an intelligent designer of the world does exist, and structured the universe so that most natural things fit together for a clear purpose. We can recognize that things in nature seem to be made for specific reasons that are too fortunate to be accidental. For instance, we observe that giraffes have extremely long necks and conveniently eat from the tops of trees. We can also identify that planet earth is just the right distance from the sun and moon to sustain human life. If either of these things were less ideal, there would be drastically worse outcomes for the giraffes and humans on earth. The harmony we witness in nature compels the belief in an intelligent designer. Philosopher William Paley gives an example supporting this argument using a natural rock and a watch. He argues that in a forest if someone were to stumble upon a rock, they would not likely question why or how the rock came to be there, for all they know it has been there forever. However, if in a forest someone was to stumble upon a watch, they would likely wonder how and why this complex watch come to be in the forest. The passerby questions the watch because it is obviously more elaborateShow MoreRelatedThe Design Arguments For The Existence Of God1401 Words   |  6 PagesThe design arguments for the existence of God center on the principle that an intelligent designer, in this case God, has crafted our world so that each item has a purpose and significant meaning. Additionally, the world is a complex and sometimes enigmatic system of elements which work together to sustain life in a way that some argue is unlikely to have occurred by pure chance alone. Therefore, some philosophers credit a divine being as the source of this order and purpose in the universe. FurthermoreRead MoreThe Design Argument for the Existence of God Essay698 Words   |  3 PagesThe Design Argument for the Existence of God The basis and structure towards the Design Argument is all about a creator and designer whom set things and planned everything to be the way it is today. Unlike the cosmological argument, the Design Argument is a lot simpler to understand and has simple steps towards it. The main point that the Design Argument claims is the fact that everything in nature seems to be put together in just the right manner suggests that an intelligentRead MoreThe Design Argument for the Existence of God Essay920 Words   |  4 PagesThe Design Argument for the Existence of God While theology may take Gods existence as absolutely necessary on the basis of authority, faith, or discovery, many philosophers have thought it possible to demonstrate by reason that there must be a God. The teleological argument, also known as the argument from design quite simply states that a designer must exist since the universe and living things display elements of design in their order, consistency, unity and patternRead MoreDoes God Exist?1074 Words   |  5 PagesDoes God Exist ? 1. What role do arguments play in answering this question? I think arguments have played an important role in analyzing and understanding the depth of this question, for mankind. Although the question itself seems factual (either it does or it doesn t), yet no arguments have been able to answer this question conclusively, despite many debates going on for centuries. One possible reason for that inconclusiveness may lie in our intuition and the way, humans define God and existenceRead MoreLimitations of the Arguments towards the Existence of God Essays1302 Words   |  6 Pagesconception of god is defined as the superme being that is all-powerful, all-knowing, omnipresence, perfection, all-loving and most kind. Although monotheism like Christian believe God which is perfect existed and they propose several arguments to prove God’ existence, however there are no evidence to show that god actually exist. Atheists suggested those arguments provide insufficient reason to believe. Furthermore, some arguments propose that it is possible to disprove the existence of God, or of certainRead MoreDoes God Exist?668 Words   |  3 Pagesculture has its God. Christianity and Islam have their own god; the Romans and Greeks had their Pantheon. A lot of people believe in god have thought that there is more to life the material world around us. It seems arises naturally the world over by believing in god. Does God exist? I believe in God is exists by the philosophical argument: ontological argument, the first cause argument, the argument form design, and the moral argument. Arguments relate to the existence of God are in differentRead MoreThe Design Argument : The Theory Argument1608 Words   |  7 PagesThe Design Argument In the past hundred years, a great debate has shaken the foundation religious and scientific beliefs of society. Philosophers have been arguing about such a debate for hundreds of years, but there does not seem to be any consensus on whether on the existence of god and the universe. The ancient world never battled over such questions, rather they had accepted the fact that the natural world was created by some being. 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The arguments that we are going to focus on shall be the Design argument and the Ontological argument. We shall compare, evaluate and discuss both the Design (or teleological) argument for the existence of God and the Ontological Argument for the existence of God, as well as highlighting philosophical criticismsRead MoreAquinas’ has five proofs for Gods existence. His first proof is an argument from motion. Nothing600 Words   |  3 PagesAquinas’ has five proofs for Gods existence. His first proof is an argument from motion. Nothing can move itself unless it was placed into motion. His second proof is an argument from efficient causes. We experience a series of efficient causes of things. I didn’t exist to my prior existence. Nothing before exists. Nothing can be caused by itself. The third proof is the argument from possibility and necessity. We find natural things that are possible to be and not to be. Things come in and out of